Specifically, the Gamma Ray Astronomy at PeV EnergieS Phase-3 (GRAPES-3) muon telescope measures high-energy particles from outer space called cosmic rays. The GRAPES-3 researchers added electric field monitors to the experiment, and devised a way to turn these muon fluctuations into measurements of the voltage of passing storms. Michael Cherry, physics professor at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, told the science publication Physics that it was a unique but indirect way to measure the electric fields in thunderstorms, and the assumptions used in the analysis might not apply to every storm.

Other scientists later constructed “bomb calori­meters” in which they burned food to measure the heat – and thus the potential energy – released from it. It was an American agricultural chemist, Wilbur Atwater, who popularised the idea that it could be used to measure both the energy contained in food and the energy the body expended on things like muscular work, tissue repair and powering the organs. To see how much energy different macronutrients provided to the body, he fed samples of an “average” American diet of that era – which he believed to be heavy in molasses cookies, barley meal and chicken gizzards – to a group of male students in a basement at Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut.

Others have developed cutting-edge models that describe how flames race across the landscape, driven not only by fuels and terrain but also by how the fire and atmosphere feed back on one another. When it comes to battling blazes, “there’s a lot of reliance on what people have seen fires do in the past,” says Neil Lareau, a meteorologist at the University of Nevada, Reno. A plume of ash and hot air rises rapidly from the fire, expanding and cooling as it gets higher.

The idea of sending sociologists to study the scientists who were studying the big questions of society grew out of that increased reliance on science as the purveyor of truth. This research that Collins did isn’t trivial — especially at a time when a proposed presidential committee on climate science is fueled by the idea that scientific gatekeepers are preventing unorthodox knowledge from getting a fair hearing. But, at the same time, both Knorr Cetina and Collins also said their work studying scientists has made it more clear to them that it’s worth trusting science.

The new environmental report projects that winter temperatures in the Arctic will increase 3 to 5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels by 2050, and a subsequent 5 to 9 degrees Celsius by 2080, changes that are “locked in,” even if nations collectively meet Paris Agreement goals. The report was released at the United Nations Environment Assembly in Nairobi on Wednesday, and adds to other recent, dire predictions for the Arctic—one of the places on Earth where global warming will trigger catastrophic outcomes due to the snowballing effects of melting permafrost. Even if Paris Agreement goals are achieved (and note that President Trump withdrew the United States from this effort), Arctic permafrost is predicted to shrink by 45 percent below current levels.

Studies on background music in the work environment have shown that music with lyrics reduces our mental performance at work, while instrumental music could boost our productivity. Music affects introverts and extroverts differently
A study published in the Applied Cognitive Psychology Journal looked at the distracting effects of music on introverts’ and extraverts’ performance on various cognitive tasks. For example, a study published in the Psychology of Music showed that music in between tasks could boost student academic performance and the ability to concentrate on a task for long periods of time.

I believe that we need to first understand this naturally occurring process (billions of years) and then layer in our contribution to this natural process. This would require clear object objective science and not theories based upon 80-90 years of data that is not consistent, and not driven by research dollars to back one side or the other. Real science and not Money science.

Dorsey retweeted Greenfield’s tweet about their podcast interview, commenting “Great conversation, and appreciate all you do to simplify the mountain of research focused on increasing one’s healthspan!” A Twitter spokesperson told TechCrunch that Dorsey, who has done a string of podcast appearances recently, was not aware of Greenfield’s stance on vaccines, his participation in the interview was not an endorsement of them and that the topic was not discussed during their conversation. Dorsey’s appearance on Greenfield’s show is especially striking considering that other tech companies, including YouTube and Facebook, are currently clamping down on anti-vaccination content.

However, Elizabeth Silber, a Canadian physicist and planetary scientist who investigated reports of a hum in Windsor, Canada, says: “There are many natural sources … such as aurorae, lightning, meteors, volcanoes, waterfalls and ocean waves. An original researcher of the microwave auditory effect, James Lin, now at the University of Illinois, believes this hypothesis is a non-starter, pointing to the fact the microwave auditory effect requires a signal that is pulsed, which would not yield a constant hum sound. According to Geoff Leventhall, a senior acoustician who specialises in low-frequency sounds, possible urban culprits do in fact include acoustic noisemakers: “Ventilation fans on large buildings, air compressors, diesel engines, either as traction sources like buses, or stationary, such as diesel-electric generators, air or water pumps.”

In a simple experiment, Sarah Bush and Scott Villa placed feather-eating lice on different-colored pigeons and left them there to breed and evolve—for four years. Feather lice are small, wingless insects that spend their whole lives among the plumage of birds, eating feathers and flakes of skin. The lice, in turn, hide through camouflage: In 2010, Bush and her husband, Dale Clayton, showed that lice tend to match the color of their host’s feathers.